CONCEPT SPEAKING
A. The
Basic Concept of Speaking
1.
What
is speaking?
Speaking is means of oral
communication that gives information communication involves two elements,
namely the speaker who gives the message and the listener who receives the
message. In other words communication involves the productive skill of speaking
and the receptive skill of speaking.
Widdowson states that
speaking is a way in which the language system is manifested through the use of
organs speech, that it is true that speaking is productive skill.[1]
Harmer states that
communication between human is an extremely complex and ever changing
phenomenon and it is not my intention to examine all the many variables that
involved. But there are certain generalization that, we can make about majority
of communicative events and these will have particular relevance for the
learning and teaching of language.[2]
Further, he states that
when the people are engaged in talking to teach other we can be fairly sure
that they are doing for good reasons.
They want to say something
a. Want
is used here in general way to suggest that speaker make definite decision to
address other people. Speaking may of course, be forced upon them but we can
still say that they feel the need to speak otherwise they would be keep silent.
b. They
have some communicative purpose
Speakers say something because
they want something to happed as a result of what they say. They may want to
charm their listener. They may want to give some information or express
pleasure. They may decide to be rude or to flatter, to agree or complain in
each of this case they are interested in achieving this communicative purpose
what is important the message they wish to convey and effect that want it to
have.
c. They
select from their language store
Speakers have an infinite cavity
to create blew sentence in order to achieve this communicative purpose they
will select from the state of the language they think is appropriate.
d. They
want to listen to something
Once again want is used in a
general way. But in order fro someone to understand what they are listening to
(or reading) they must have some desires to do so.
e. They
are interested in the communicative purpose of what is being said.
In general people listen to
language because they want to find out what the speaker is trying to say. In
other words what ideas they are conveying and what effect they wish the
communicative to have.
f. They
process a variety of language
Although the listener may have a
good idea of what of the speaker is going to say next, in general terms. He or
she has to be prepared to process great variety of grammar and vocabulary to
understand exactly what is being said.
B. Elements
of the Spoken Language
Harmer in the practice of English language
teaching points out the elements of spoken language as follows:[3]
a. Pronunciation
Native
speaker (or competent users of the language) knows how to say a word that is
how pronouncing it. This knowledge is made up of three areas, sounds, stress
and intonation.
1) Sound
On
their own the sounds of a language may well be meaningless. If you say /t/ (the
line show that this is phonetic script) a few time, e.g. ‘tu,tu,tu’, it will
not mean very much in English. Neither will the sounds /k/, /a/ or /s/. But if
we put all these sounds together in a certain order we end up with the words ‘eats’ and that does
mean something.
All words are made up of sounds like
this and speakers of a language need to know these sounds if they are to
understand what it said to them and be understood in their turn. Some of the
problems that speakers of English as a foreign language have are precisely
because they have difficulty with individual sounds, for example the Spanish
speaker who says ‘berry’ instead of ‘very’ or the Japanese speaker who says a
word which sounds like ‘light’ instead of the intended ‘right’.
2) Stress
When they use a word native
speaker know which part of that word should receive the heaviest emphasis. For
example, in the word ‘photograph’ not all the parts are of equal importance. We
can divide the word it three parts: ‘pho’, ‘to’, and ‘graph’. Competent speaker
of the language will say the word like this, ‘PHOtograph’, stressing the first
syllable. The situation changes with the word ‘photographer. Where the stress
shifts to the second depending upon a word’ students grammatical function: ‘perMIT’
is a verb, but ‘PERmit’ is a noun, and the same is true of the words ‘imPORT’
and ‘Import’, for example.
3)
Intonation
Closely
connected with stress is intonation, which means the tune use when you are
speaking, and the music of speech.
Intonation
means the pitch you use and the music you use to change that pitch. Do you use
a high pitch when you say a word? Does your voice fall or rise at the end of
the sentence? For example, if I say ‘you’re from Australia, aren’t you?
Starting my question at the medium pitch of my voice range and dropping the
pitch at the end of the sentence (on ‘aren’t you’) this will indicate to other
competent speakers of English that I am merely speaking confirmation of a fact
about which I am almost completely certain.
Intonation
is a big indicator of involvement as well. Intonation is clearly important
then, and competent users of the language recognize what meaning it has and can
change the meaning of what they say through using it in different ways.
b.
Grammar
Grammar
is the study of the classes of words, their inflection, and their functions and
relations in the sentences (Webster:495). If you ask the average speaker of a
language what they know about grammar they way remember the odd lesson from
school, but beyond that they will say that they have forgotten what grammar
they once knew. The same speaker, however, can say a sentence like ‘if I had
known, I’d have come earlier’. Without thinking, even though it is
grammatically complex. How is this possible?
Linguistic have been
investigating the native speakers’ knowledge for years, just as they have been
trying to think of the best way of describing that knowledge and the
grammatical system. What they found is that the grammatical system is
rule-based and that competent users of the language ‘know’ these rulers in some
way.
So our average native speakers
who say they do not know grammar are both right and wrong. They do not
consciously know any grammar and could not produce any rules of grammar without
study and thought. But they do have a language competence which is subconscious
and which allows them to generate grammatically correct sentences.
c. Vocabulary
Of
course competent speakers of the language also know the lexis (vocabulary) of a
language, although that knowledge will vary depending, for example, on their
education and occupation. They know what words mean and they also know the
subtleties of some of those meanings. Competent speakers of English know what a
heart is but they do not get confused by sentences like ‘He wears his heart on
his sleeve’.
Competent speakers of language
follow what is happening to their language and how words change their meaning
and sometimes cross grammatical borders.
d. Appropriacy
Knowledge of language use is the knowledge of how
to use language appropriately, how to get it to do what we want it to do in the
right circumstances. Thus a British speakers of English would be unlikely to
invite a high status superior to dinner by would be in appropriately informal
in such language would be in appropriately informal in such circumstances.
Equally they would be unlikely to say ‘ I was wondering if you would be
interested in partaking of a hamburger’ to their best friend. We can think of
many more examples: doctors speaking to doctors about an illness use different
language from doctors talking to patients, adults do not speak to children in
the same way as they speak to each other, lectures do not talk 2.000 students
in a big hall in the same way as they talk to two of them over a cup of coffee.
e. Fluency
Fluency is probably best
achieve by allowing the stream of speech to flow then, assume of this speech
spills over beyond comprehensibility, the “river banks” of instruction or same
details of phonology, grammar or discourse will channel the speech or more
purpose full course.
To speak fluently, we must
have both of Rhythm in our speaking and absence of non fluencies in our words.
Rhythm has to do with the regularly or regularity of accenting and phrasing
with which we present our words.
The presence of non fluencies
in our speech hurts us in two ways that if makes out speech more difficult to
understand and it lower our credibility deserves some explanations.
Typically, non fluencies are
interpreted by listener as being indicative of things nervousness and
experience. Either, interrogation is detrimental to us as a source, if our
speech is fluent (that is free from fluencies). The audience will interpret
that fluency is the mark of confidence and experienced speaker. Our credibility
thus rises, it is important to our success, than our speak in manner that is
both Rhythm and free from influence.
B. Regional Dialect
The best way to develop a regional accent is to spend time in that
region. You can not learn an accent, you absorb it. Accent modification is a
method used to change an accent in order to achieve neutral accent.
Everyone speaks with an accent. You may speak English with an accent from
a different region in the United States. You may speak English with an accent
because english is not your first language. You may speak french with english
accent. In our world today, people move from state to state and from country to
country. One thing that we take with us no matter where we move is our accent.
Many people learn to speak a second ir third language. But even so, they
may have trouble communicating because they still have accent from their first
language. This is usually because they learned later language as an adult. They
may undergo special training or classes to focus only on pronouncing the new
language more like a native. This is accent reduction for purpose of better
communication.
When an individual feels that his or her accent
interferes with overall communication in a social or work setting, that person
may seek accent modification, more commonly known as accent reduction. A reason
for accent reduction is when you move to a different are within your own
country. Certain accents can make things difficult.
Accent
reflect the unique characteristics and background of a person. Many people take
great pride in their accents. However,
some people may have difficulty communicating because of their accent. These
difficulties include the following:
a.
People
not understanding you.
b.
Avoiding
social interaction with those who may not understand you.
c.
People
focusing on your accent more than on what you are trying to say.
d.
These
types of communication problems may have negative effects on job performance,
educational advancement, and everday life activities. It may also negatively
affetc your self esteem if you are having trouble communicating because accent.
For all of these reasons, some people want to modify or change their accent.
Having
rejected the distinction between ‘language’ and ‘dialect’ , we can now turn to
an even more fundamental question : how clear are the boundaries between
varieties? The hierarchical model of the familiy tree implies that the
boundaries between varieties are clear at all levels of the tree. Is this so?
In particular, is it possible to continue such a tree downwards, revealing
samaller and smaller varieties, until one comes to the level of the individual
speaker (the ‘idiolect’)? The answer must be no.
If we
consider the most straightforward variety differences based on geography, it
should be possible, if the family tree model is right, to identify what are
called Regional Dialects within any
larger variety such as English. Fortunately, there is a vast amount of evidence
bearing on this question, produced by the discipline called DIALECTOLOGY,
particularly by its branch called DIALECT
GEOGRAPHY. their result are plotted on a map showing which items were
found in which village (since dialect geography tends to concentrate on rural
areas to avoid the complexities of towns). The dialect geographer may then draw
a line between the area where one item
was found and areas where others were found, showing a boundary for each area
an ISOGLOSS[4].
C. Diglosia
Diglosia is
a relatively stable language situation, in wich in addition to primary dialects
of the language, which may include a standard or regional standard, there is a
very divergent, highly codified, often grammatically more complex, superposed
variety, the vehicle of the large and respected body or written literature,
either of an earlier period or in an other speech community, which is learned
largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken
purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary
conversation (word. 15 (159):336).[5]
D.
Module
Of Neutral English Training
Neutral
English training includes the following modules:
1.
Phonetic
When
phonetic studies all possible speech sounds that may be produced by human
beings in general, it is called ‘General Phonetics’ it decribes all possible
movements of speech or gans and their resulting sounds that are used by man in
his speaking. However, phonetics may narrow down its scope by studying speech
sounds as used in an individual languge such as in English. Indonesian and so
on. This writting, for instance, deals especially with speech sounds that are
used as signalling units in communicating ideas in the English language, and is
accordingly called ‘English phonetics’. It is meant for Indonesian students
learning English. Sometimes references are made to indonesian speech sounds for
the sake of comparison.
Form of
English described here was the dialect that was spoken by educated British
people in the southern part of England. And which was especially heard through
the B.B.C. English was spoken throughout the world cannot be expected to he
uniform and it is only natural that it varitied with time and place, monir
differences in pronunciation, and probably in grammar. Do not matter as long as
the language is readily understood in the English speaking world. There are no
two people who speak exactly a like. Differences in pronuncation between one
speaker and another are caused by geographical, social and historical factors;
or they may also be caused by adividual peculiarities such as stuttering,
lisping, or other speech deficiencies.
The style
of pronuncation adopted here is the so called ‘Slower Colloquial Style’ . Which
is intermediate between the formal style of lecturing and the rapid familiar
style. This style is most suitable for foreign students since other styles can
be easily learned from the slower colloquial style.[6]
2.
Vowel
& Consonant Sounds
The words
vowel and consonant are very familliar ones, but when we study the sounds of
speech scientifically we find that it is not easy to define exactly what they
mean. The most common view is that vowels are sounds in which there is no
obstuction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. A
doctor who wants to look at the back of a patient’s mouth often asks the
patient to say “ah” ; making this vowel sound is the best way of presenting an
unobstructed view. But if we make a sound like s or d it can be clearly felt
that sounds like s and d should be called consonants. However, there are many
cases where the decision is not so easy to make. One problem is that some
English sounds that we think of as consonants, such as the sounds at the
beginning of the words ‘hay’ and ‘way’, do not really obstruct the flow of air
more than some vowels do. Another problem is that different languages have
different ways of divinding their sounds into vowel and consonant; for example,
the usual sound produced at the beginning of the word ‘red’ is felt to be a
consonant by most English speakers, but in some other languages (some dialects
of chinese, for example) the same sound is treated as one of the vowels.[7]
3.
Syllable
and Word Stress
The
syllable is a very important unit. Most people seem to believe that, even if
they cannot define what a syllable is, they can count how many syllables there
are in a given word or sentence, if they are asked to do this they often tap
their finger as they count, which illustrates the syllable’s importance in the
rhythm of speech. As a matter of fact, if one tries the experiment if asking
English speakers to count the syllables in, say, a tape recorded sentence,
there is often a considerable amount of disagreement.[8]
The
distribution of stress in a word in English cannot be predicted. This means
that each word in English has its own stress pattern. Which should, therefore
be learned together with its meaning. Because of this irregularity in the
distribution of stress it is advisable to consult a dictionary in case of
doubt. It is very common for English words and their derivatives to have
different stress patterns.[9]
4.
Sentence
Formation
An aural conjunctive
concept formation experiment used as stimuli sentences varying systematically
in Voice (active/passive), Mood (declarative/interrogative), Modality
(affirmative/negative), tense, and lexical content. Target classes were the
eight sentence types defined by all combinations of the first three syntactic
variables. Aural processing was more difficult than visual, but higher
education level facilitated concept acquisition for males and females equally.
The 64 undergraduate subjects tended to avoid syntactic analysis in depth,
classifying sentences on as cursory a basis as the task allowed. The simple,
unequivocal syntactic signals of Mood and Modality meaning were readily
apparent, but the discrimination of Voice was complicated by ambiguous syntax semantic associations and lack of
discourse context. Voice is thus not seen as a determinant of utterance type,
but as a context- and content-dependent realization of agent or object focus in
transitive messages.[10]
5.
Intonation
No
definiton is completely satisfactory, but any attempt at a definition must
recognise that the pitch of the voice plays the most important part. Only in
very unusual situations do we speak with fixed, unvarying pitch, and when we
speak normally the pitch of our voice is constantly changing. One of the most
important tasks in analysing intonation is to listen to the speaker’s pitch and
recognise what it is doing; this is not an easy thing to do, and it seems to be
a quite different skill from that acquired in studying segmental phonetics. We
describe pitch in terms of high and low, and some people find it difficult to relate
what they hear in someone’s voice to a scale ranging from low to high. We
should remember that ‘high’ and ‘low’ are arbitrary choices for end points of
the pitch scale. It would be perfectly reasonable to think of pitch as ranging
istead from ‘light’ to ’heavy’, for example, or from ‘left’ to ’right’, and
people who have difficulty in ‘hearing’ intonation patterns are generally only
having difficulty in relating what they hear (which is the same as what
everyone else haers) to this ‘pseudo-spatial’ representation.[11]
6.
Articulation
Exercises
Vowel
movements. Overemphasize vowel by drawing them out. Aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa,
Eeeeeeeeeeeee. Warms up vocal cords for the morning. Pen in mouth. Insert pen
behind canines,read. Drool. Have handkerchief available to catch drool. Enhances
articulation, builds cheek muscles. The “and” drill. Insert and the and word
and “and” and between and every and word and. Pronounce an as if you were a
southerner: and ah is a two syllable word enhances each word as a distinct
unit, rather than encouraging slurring. Read backwards. Right to left, bottom
to top. Enhances the ability to clearly distinguish between words.
Overenunciation. Slowly read evidence, exaggerating each syllable. Enhances the
ability to speak in a voice other than monotone. Chat with unlce willy. Speak
to clueless uncle willy gets most of his information from the weekly world
news, wich means that he really likes to hear speakers talk “from the heart” in
an impassioned manner. Enchances persuasive appeals and emphasis. Hold a chair.
Hold a chair to your stomach, with the evidence on the chair. Speak. Enhances
the strength of the diaphragm and projection. Say “abiday” and or “gibbida”
over and over again. Then say ta ka over and over again. These words hit the
key consonants that often blur together during speeches.[12]
7. Pretonics
The tonic
carries a fall or rise in pitch movement. Syllables, from the first stressed
syllable, and up to the tonic, we call the pretonic. We do not consider
sequences of syllables before the tonic which do not include a stressed
syllable since they convey no linguistic contrasts in meaning.
a. Level pretonics, before low tonic, whether falling of rising,
level pretonics tend to remain level, at the same pitch
height as the onset of the tonic. Before a high fall, however, the level
pretonic may tend to rise towards the onset pitch of the tonic, example
Don’t
be, so im’patient then.
b. Stepping pretonic, in stepping pretonics comprising more than
one stressed syllable, the stressed syllables step down successively, with
intervening unstressed syllables more or less on the same level as the
preceding stressed syllable, or dropping towards, but not below, the pitch of
the next stressed syllable.
c. Sliding pretonic, stressed syllables in the sliding pretonic
are successively lowered in pitch as in the stepping pretonic, but the
untressed syllables intervening between stressed syllables follow a falling
countour which drops below the level of a following stressed syllable. `
[2]Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Teaching. New
Edition (London: Longman, 1991), p.46
[3]Ibid., p. 11
[5] Abdul Chaer & Leonie Agustina, Sosiolinguistik (Edisi Revisi Cet.II PT
Asdi Mahasatya, Jakarta; 2004), P. 92.
[7] Peter Roach. English Phonetics and
Phonology (Cambridge University Press, Melbourne Sydney , 1983). P.10.
[12]
http://www.speaking.pitt.edu/student/public-speaking/excerises.html
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